Personality Psychology Paper Assignment

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Theories of Personality
Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory

Chapter 8

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Outline

• Overview of Post-Freudian Theory
• Biography of Erickson
• The Ego in Post-Freudian Theory
• Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Erickson’s Method of Investigation
• Related Research
• Critique of Erickson
• Concept of Humanity

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Overview of Post-Freudian Theory

• Intended to Extend Freud’s Assumptions
• Including extending infantile development
• Life-cycle approach to personality
• Emphasis on social and historical influences
• Stages of development are characterized by a psychosocial struggle
• For example, identity crisis

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Biography of Erickson

• • Born in Frankfurt, Germany in 1902
  • Son of Jewish mother and unknown father
  • As a child, does not feel accepted by either Jewish or Gentile community
  • Leaves home at 18 to live as itinerant artist, wandering Europe for 7 years

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Biography (cont’d)

• In Vienna, is introduced to psychoanalysis by Anna Freud, who becomes his analyst
• Graduates from Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute
• Lacking an academic degree, accepts research position at Harvard Medical School in 1933
• Publishes Childhood and Society in 1950
• Also taught at Yale, Berkeley, and several other institutions
• Professor of Human Development at Harvard in 1960
• Died in Cape Cod in 1994

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The Ego in Post-Freudian Theory

• Description of Ego Psychology
• Three Interrelated Aspects of the Ego:

Body ego

Ego ideal

Ego Identity

• Society’s Influence
• Ego emerges from and is largely shaped by culture
• Epigenetic Principle
• The ego grows as our organs do; developing sequentially, with certain changes arising at a particular time and with more recent developments built upon previous structures. Personality Psychology Paper Assignment

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Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Basic Points of Stage Approach
• Growth follows epigenetic principle
• Every stage has an interaction of opposites
• Conflict produces ego strength
• Too little strength at one stage results in core psychopathology at a later stage
• Stages are also biological in nature
• Earlier stages do not cause later personality development
• From adolescence on, personality development involves identity crisis

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Stages of Psychosocial Development (cont’d)

• Infancy
• Oral-Sensory Mode
• Modes of Incorporation
• Receiving and Accepting
• Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust
• Hope: The Basic Strength of Infancy
• Early Childhood
• Anal-Urethral-Muscular Mode
• Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
• Will: The Basic Strength of Childhood

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Stages of Psychosocial Development (cont’d)

• Play Age
• Genital-Locomotor Mode
• Initiative versus Guilt
• Purpose: The Basic Strength of the Play Age
• School Age
• Latency
• Industry versus Inferiority
• Competence: The Basic Strength of the School Age

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Stages of Psychosocial Development (cont’d)

• Adolescence
• Puberty
• Identity versus Identity Confusion
• Fidelity: The Basic Strength of Adolescence
• Young Adulthood
• Genitality
• Intimacy versus Isolation
• Love: The Basic Strength of Young Adulthood

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Stages of Psychosocial Development (cont’d)

• Adulthood
• Procreativity
• Generativity versus Stagnation
• Care: The Basic Strength of Adulthood
• Old Age
• Generalized Sensuality
• Integrity versus Despair
• Wisdom: The Basic Strength of Old Age

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Erickson’s Method of Investigation

• Anthropological Studies
• To show that early childhood training was consistent with this strong cultural value
• Sioux Nation of South Dakota
• Yurok Nation of northern California
• Psychohistory
• Combination of the methods of psychoanalysis and historical research to study personality
• Including Martin Luther and Gandhi

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Related Research

• Generativity and Parenting
• Bauer and McAdams (2004)
• Peterson (2013)
• Having a sense of generativity is important to effective parenting
• Generativity vs. Stagnation
• van Hiel et al. (2013)
• Generativity and stagnation can and sometimes do operate separately and independently in adult development

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Critique of Erickson

• Erickson’s Theory Is:
• High on Generating Research, and Internal Consistency
• Moderate on Organizing Knowledge, Falsifiability, Guiding Action, and Parsimony

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Concept of Humanity

• Determinism over Free Choice
• Optimism over Pessimism
• Causality over Teleology
• Unconscious and Conscious Is Influenced by Stage with Unconscious Dominating Early Life and Conscious Later
• Culture over Biology
• Uniqueness over Similarity

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Theories of Personality
Horney: Psychoanalytic Social
Theory

Chapter 6

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Outline

• Overview of Psychoanalytic Social Theory
• Biography of Horney
• Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory
• Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety
• Compulsive Drives
• Intrapsychic Conflicts. Personality Psychology Paper Assignment

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Outline

• Feminine Psychology
• Psychotherapy
• Related Research
• Critique of Horney
• Concept of Humanity

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Overview of Psychoanalytic Social Theory

• Social and Cultural Conditions Largely Responsible for Shaping Personality
• When Needs Are Not Met in Childhood, Basic Hostility and Anxiety Arise
• Combat Basic Anxiety in Three Ways:
• Moving toward people
• Moving against people
• Moving away from people

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Biography of Horney

• Born in Eilbek (near Hamburg) in 1885
• Youngest of two children born to an older sea captain and his young wife
• Entered University of Freiburg in 1906
• One of the first women in Germany admitted to medical school, where she specialized in psychiatry
• Analyzed in 1910 by Karl Abraham, one of Freud’s close associates
• Published The Technique of Psychoanalytic Therapy in 1917

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Biography (cont’d)

• In 1932, Horney left Germany to become Associate Director on Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute
• Increasingly abandoned orthodox psychoanalysis in favor of a more socially oriented theory
• Published Neurosis and Human Growth in 1950
• Founded her own clinic
• Died in New York in 1952

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Psychoanalytic Social Theory

• Horney and Freud Compared
• Horney’s criticisms of Freud’s Theories

Orthodoxy leads to theoretical and clinical stagnation

Inaccurate views of feminine psychology

Should move beyond instinct and examine culture

• • The Impact of Culture
  • The Importance of Childhood Experiences

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Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety

• Basic hostility
• Arise when parents do not satisfy child’s needs for safety and satisfaction
• Basic anxiety
• Repressed hostility leads to feelings of insecurity and apprehension

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Compulsive Drives

• Neurotics Repeat Same Unproductive Strategy
• Neurotic Needs
• Attempts reduce basic anxiety
• 10 categories
• Neurotic Trends Are Attitudes Toward Self and Others, and Include
• Moving toward people
• Moving against people
• Moving away from people

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Intrapsychic Conflicts

• Originate from Interpersonal Experiences
• The Idealized Self-Image Includes Three Aspects:
• Neurotic search for glory
• Neurotic claims
• Neurotic pride
• Self-Hatred
• Neurotic individuals dislike themselves because their real self does not match insatiable demands of their idealized view of self

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Feminine Psychology

• Psychological differences between men and women are due to culture and social expectations rather than to anatomy
• View of the Oedipus complex was that any sexual attraction or hostility of child to parent would be the result of learning and not biology
• Found concept of “penis envy” untenable
• If that existed, should also be “womb envy”

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Psychotherapy

• Therapy focused on development of self-realization through self-analysis
• Utilizes same techniques as Freud
• Successful when patients can assume responsibility for their psychological development
• Goal of Horneyian psychotherapy:
• Help patients grow to self-realization
• Give up their idealized self-image
• Relinquish their neurotic search for glory
• Change self-hatred to self-acceptance
• Focus on love, mastery, and freedom

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Related Research

• The Neurotic Compulsion to Avoid the Negative
• Robinson et al. (2007)
• While most research has had an understandable negative bias, recent research has been investigating some benefits of neuroticism: It is possible to be a “successful neurotic” in that neurotic skill at avoiding negative outcomes improves daily mood. Personality Psychology Paper Assignment

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Critique of Horney

• Horney’s Theory Is:
• Moderate on Internal Consistency and Parsimony
• Low on Falsifiability, Generating Research, and Guiding Action
• Very Low on Organizing Knowledge

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Concept of Humanity

• Free Choice over Determinism
• Optimism over Pessimism
• Social Influence over Biology
• Causality and Teleology, and Conscious and Unconscious Play Equal Roles
• Similarities over Uniqueness

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Theories of Personality
Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic
Theory

Chapter 9

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Outline

• Overview of Holistic-Dynamic Theory
• Biography of Maslow
• Maslow’s View of Motivation
• Self-Actualization
• Philosophy of Science
• Measuring Self-Actualization

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Outline

• The Jonah Complex
• Psychotherapy
• Related Research
• Critique of Maslow
• Concept of Humanity

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Overview of Holistic-Dynamic Theory

• Assumes Whole Person Is Motivated by One Need or Another
• People Have Potential to Grow toward Psychological Health/Self-Actualization
• Lower Level Needs Must Be Satisfied Before Higher Level Needs Can Be Met

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Biography of Maslow

• Born in New York City in 1908
• Oldest of seven children of Russian-Jewish immigrants
• Harbors lifelong animosity toward mother
• Received a PhD in 1934 in psychology from University of Wisconsin where he worked with Harry Harlow

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Biography (cont’d)

• Returns to New York in 1935 and works with E. L. Thorndike at Columbia University
• Met and was influenced by Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, and Karen Horney
• In 1951, became chairperson of the psychology department at Brandeis University
• President of American Psychological Association 1967-1968
• Died in 1970 of a heart attack

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Maslow’s View of Motivation

• Holistic Approach to Motivation
• Motivation Is Complex
• People Are Continually Motivated by One Need or Another
• All People Everywhere Are Motivated by the Same Basic Needs
• Needs Can Be Arranged on a Hierarchy

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Hierarchy of Needs

• Conative or Basic Needs
• Physiological
• Safety
• Love and belongingness
• Esteem
• Self-Actualization
• Aesthetic Needs
• The need for order and beauty
• Cognitive Needs
• The need for curiosity and knowledge
• Neurotic Needs
• An unproductive relating to other people

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General Discussion of Needs

• Reversed Order of Needs
• Unmotivated Behavior
• Expressive and Coping Behavior
• Deprivation of Needs
• Instinctoid Nature of Needs
• Comparison of Higher and Lower Needs

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Self-Actualization

• Maslow’s Quest for the Self-Actualized Person
• Criteria for Self-Actualization
• Free from psychopathology
• Have progressed through hierarchy of needs
• Embracing of the B-values
• Full use of talents, capacities, and potentialities
• Values of Self-Actualizers
• Motivated by Eternal Verities or B-Values
• Metamotivation

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Self-Actualization (cont’d)

• Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People
• More efficient perception of reality
• Acceptance of self, others, and nature
• Spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness
• Problem-centering
• The need for privacy
• Autonomy
• Continued freshness of appreciation
• The peak experience

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Self-Actualization (cont’d)

• Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People (cont’d)
• Gemeinschaftsgefuhl
• Profound interpersonal relations
• The democratic character structure
• Discrimination between means and ends
• Philosophical sense of humor
• Creativeness
• Resistance to enculturation
• Love, Sex, and Self-Actualization

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Philosophy of Science

• Maslow argued for a humanistic, holistic approach that is not value free
• Psychological science should stress the importance of individual procedures
• Scientists should put values, emotion, and ritual back into their work and be creative in their pursuit of knowledge

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Measuring Self-Actualization

• Personal Orientation Inventory (POI)
• Comprehensive measure of the values and behaviors of self-actualizing people
• Short Index of Self-Actualization
• Brief Index of Self-Actualization
• Four factors:

Core self-actualization

Autonomy

Openness to experience

Comfort with solitude

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The Jonah Complex

• The Jonah complex is an abnormal syndrome defined as the fear of being or doing one’s best
• Probably all of us have some timidity about seeking perfection or greatness
• People allow false humility to stifle creativity, and therefore they prevent themselves from becoming self-actualizing

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Psychotherapy

• The aim of therapy is for clients to embrace the being-values
• Clients must be freed from their dependence on others so that their natural impulse to grow can become active
• Psychotherapy must not be value free

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Related Research

• Positive Psychology
• Burton & King (2004)
• Writing about positive experiences was associated with better physical health in the following months
• Lyubomirsky et al. (2013)
• While simply thinking about positive experiences did not confer physical health benefits, it did result in greater well-being a month later
• Personality Development, Growth, and Goals
• Bauer & McAdams (2004a)
• Intrinsic and exploratory growth goals were associated with greater well-being and ego-development, and hence greater life satisfaction; these all were higher in older than younger adults. Personality Psychology Paper Assignment

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Critique of Maslow

• Maslow’s Theory Is:
• Very High on Organizing Knowledge
• High on Guiding Action
• Moderate on Generating Research, Internal Consistency, and Parsimony
• Low on Falsifiability

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Concept of Humanity

• Free Choice over Determinism
• Optimism over Pessimism
• Teleology over Causality
• Conscious over Unconscious
• Equal Emphasis on Culture and Biology
• Uniqueness over Similarity

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Theories of Personality
Rogers: Person-Centered
Theory

Chapter 10

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Outline

• Overview of Person-Centered Theory
• Biography of Rogers
• Person-Centered Theory
• Psychotherapy
• The Person of Tomorrow
• Philosophy of Science

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Outline

• The Chicago Studies
• Related Research
• Critique of Rogers
• Concept of Humanity

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Overview of Person-Centered Theory

• Grew Out Experiences as a Psychotherapist
• Called for Empirical Research to Support Personality Theory
• Not Comfortable with Notion of Theory
• Never Systematically Reformulated Theory of Personality

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Biography of Rogers

• Born in Oak Park, Illinois in 1902
• Fourth of six children of upper-middle class, devoutly religious parents
• Briefly attends seminary, intending to become a minister in 1924
• Turned to psychology and earned his Ph.D. from Columbia in 1931

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Biography (cont’d)

• Influenced by Otto Rank
• Spent nearly a dozen years working as a clinician in Rochester
• Published The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child in 1939.
• Took a position at Ohio State University in 1940, where he elucidated his views on therapy
• President of American Psychological Association in 1946-1947
• Published Client-Centered Therapy in 1951
• In 1964, moves to California and helps found Center for Studies of the Person
• Died in 1987 following surgery on broken hip. Personality Psychology Paper Assignment

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Person-Centered Theory

• Basic Assumptions
• Formative Tendency
• Actualizing Tendency
• The Self and Self-Actualization
• The Self-Concept
• The Ideal Self
• Awareness
• Levels of Awareness
• Denial of Positive Experiences
• Becoming a Person
• Barriers to Psychological Health
• Conditions of Worth
• Incongruence
• Defensiveness
• Disorganization

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Psychotherapy

• Conditions
• Counselor congruence
• Unconditional positive regard
• Empathic listening
• Process
• Stages of therapeutic change
• Theoretical explanation for therapeutic change
• Outcomes

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The Person of Tomorrow

• Psychologically healthy people are:
• More adaptable
• Open to their experiences
• Live fully in the moment
• Existential living
• Harmonious relations with others
• More Integrated (conscious and unconscious)
• Basic trust of human nature
• Greater richness in life

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Philosophy of Science

• Science begins and ends with subjective experience
• Scientists must be involved with phenomena being studied
• Scientists perceive patterns among phenomena
• Scientists communicate findings, but this communication is subjective

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The Chicago Study

• Hypotheses:

Clients will become more aware of their feelings and experiences

The gap between the real self and the ideal self will lessen as a consequence of therapy

Clients’ behavior will become more socialized, that is, more self-accepting and more accepting of others

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The Chicago Study (cont’d)

• Method
• To measure adjustment, they used the Q sort technique (congruence between real & ideal selves)
• Participants were adults who sought therapy at the University of Chicago counseling center
• Experimenters asked half the participants to wait 60 days before receiving therapy. In addition, they tested a control group of “normals” who were matched with the therapy group. Personality Psychology Paper Assignment

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The Chicago Study (cont’d)

• Findings
• The therapy group—but not the control group—showed a lessening of the gap between real self and ideal self

• Clients who improved during therapy—but not those rated as least improved—showed changes in social behavior, as noted by their friends

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The Chicago Study (cont’d)

• Summary of Results
• Therapy group did demonstrate growth and retained improvement during follow-up, but they did not attain the level of psychological health in the control group

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Related Research

• Self-Discrepancy Theory
• Higgins (1987)
• Real-ideal discrepancy leads to dejection-related emotions; real-ought discrepancy leads to agitation-related emotions
• Phillips & Silvia (2005)
• High self-awareness condition led to feeling negative emotion at self-discrepancies
• Wolfe & Maisto (2000)
• Real-ideal self-discrepancy and negative mood were negatively correlated with alcohol consumption
• Motivation and Pursuing one’s Goals
• Sheldon et al. (2003)
• Supports Rogers’ theory s that people do have an OVP
• Intrinsically fulfilling goals become more important over time while materialistic goals become less important

Schwartz & Waterman (2013)

• The OVP directs us toward fulfilling pursuits

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Critique of Rogers

• Rogers’ Theory Is:
• Very High on Practicality and Internal Consistency
• High on Falsifiability, Parsimony, and Organizing Knowledge
• Moderate on Generating Research

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Concept of Humanity

• Free Choice over Determinism
• Optimism over Pessimism
• Teleology over Causality
• Uniqueness over Similarity
• Conscious over Unconscious
• Social Influence over Biology

A. The Life of Adler

Adler called his approach to human nature Individual Psychology, which focused on the uniqueness of each person and denied the universality of biological motives and goals.

Adler had an early childhood where he suffered from illness, was near death from pneumonia and experienced isolation from other children because of his illnesses.